Media and Information Literacy Repository – South Asia

In the course of the 2010s, the increasing circulation of disinformation through online channels led to concerns being raised amongst academics and media experts about the information disorder: the complex interplay of disinformation, misinformation and malinformation at a very large scale enabled by digital distribution technologies (Wardle & Derakshan, 2017). The realisation that false information could affect democratic processes such as elections (Brexit, US 2016 Presidential Election, …) and decrease trust in the democratic institutions, or could be weaponised to extremely polarise public debate (Covid19, Alt-Right…) led to the European Union prioritising the fight against disinformation. The European Union set up a variety of pioneering initiatives, ranging from collaborative research projects to improve the detection of disinformation to increased support for investigative journalism. However, two key responses to tackle disinformation stand out: fact-checking and news literacy (Frau-Meigs, 2022).

The study aims to determine the preferred information skills and evaluate information literacy and skills in the social media era on the example of investigative journalism to surmount the majority of challenges it faces. The challenge-based survey conducted among 281 reporting journalists from various countries revealed that their information skills and literacy are average. The survey results show that half of the respondents (52%) recognise the importance of these characteristics, while 38% are sure that information literacy and skills are not necessary and 10% chose the variant ‘I am not sure’. As the indicators show, the main aim for investigative journalists’ writing is to influence the society’s mind about some facts presented in the reports (40%). Only 25% of respondents write with the purpose to present reliable information that indicates the level of their information literacy. The latest strategies in the professional development of investigative journalists in modern social media era allow overcoming the major challenges, including those related to the influence and interests of third parties. The practical significance and prospects of further research are explained by the possibility of using the obtained statistical data to increase the level of information literacy and skills not only of investigative journalists, but also other specialists who work with information.

The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence, particularly generative AI, has triggered profound transformations within the global journalism industry, fundamentally challenging traditional news production models, professional norms, and educational paradigms. This comprehensive study examines the multidimensional impact of AI technologies on contemporary journalism through theoretical analysis, industry observation, and educational case studies. The paper first explores the emergence of "Journalistic Taylorism]"(Hindy Lauer Schachter,2020). A phenomenon characterized by the standardization of news production processes through algorithmic intervention, resulting in journalist deskilling and professional alienation. It then analyzes how news organizations are navigating the tension between platform dependency and professional autonomy, creating what scholars term "functional infotainment" on social media platforms. The educational dimension receives particular attention, with examination of innovative "three-stage" training models that balance foundational skills with AI literacy development. By synthesizing international research perspectives with empirical data from China's growing digital publishing sector (which reached ¥1.7485 trillion in revenue in 2024), this paper proposes a holistic framework for understanding journalism's evolution in the AI era. The findings suggest that successful adaptation requires neither wholesale rejection nor uncritical embrace of technology, but rather the cultivation of journalists who possess both critical thinking capabilities and technological fluency – professionals capable of leveraging AI's efficiencies while preserving journalism's essential democratic functions. The study concludes with recommendations for institutional, educational, and ethical reforms that might enable journalism to maintain its public service mission amidst technological disruption.

The chapter informs about the increasing necessity for media and information literacy (MIL) to act as a strategic guideline toward civic resilience against the detrimental effects of digital transformation in Baltic and Nordic countries. Despite evident differences between the two regions, similarities are noted among countries in terms of the urgency of requests to adequately respond to information disruption such as information manipulation and the influx of disinformation. Nordic countries exhibit a progressive outlook on MIL with well-established institutionalized media education programs and a commitment to regularly assess and adjust MIL objectives in response to evolving digital landscapes and their flaws. However, concern is increasing about the economic and business challenges faced by conventional news media on the one hand and public trust in media on the other hand. Particularly, the latter aspect is viewed as a significant risk to informed citizenship in the near future. Precisely for this reason, a close cooperation among groups of stakeholders in each country, as well as regionally and globally, is required to achieve the goal of media-informed and resilient civics to withstand information disruption and to guarantee that the goals of democratic sustainability and well-being are ensured for everyone.

This report contains an overview of the relevant economic research literature on the digital transformation of news markets and the impact on the quality of news. It compares various definitions of fake news, including false news and other types of disinformation and finds that there is no consensus on this. It presents some survey data on consumer trust and quality perceptions of various sources of online news that indicate relatively high trust in legacy printed and broadcasted news publishers and lower trust in algorithm-driven news distribution channels such as aggregators and social media. Still, two thirds of consumers access news via these channels. More analytical empirical evidence on the online consumption of genuine and fake news shows that strong newspaper brands continue to attract large audiences from across the political spectrum for direct access to newspaper websites. Real news consumption on these sites dwarfs fake news consumption. Fake news travels faster and further on social media sites. Algorithm-driven news distribution platforms have reduced market entry costs and widened the market reach for news publishers and readers. At the same time, they separate the role of content editors and curators of news distribution. The latter becomes algorithm-driven, often with a view to maximize traffic and advertising revenue. That weakens the role of trusted editors as quality intermediaries and facilitates the distribution of false and fake news content. It might lead to news market failures. News distribution platforms have recently become aware of the need to correct for these potential failures. Non-regulatory initiatives such as fact-checking, enhanced media literacy and news media codes of conduct can also contribute.

The rapid flow of political information on social media has made it increasingly difficult to control the spread of misinformation. This situation heightens students’ vulnerability to political misinformation due to limited critical thinking skills in evaluating the authenticity and accuracy of information sources. The uneven levels of media literacy, information literacy, and news literacy further weaken students’ capacity to assess and verify political content. This study aims to analyze the relationship and influence of media literacy, information literacy, and news literacy on high school students’ ability to recognize political misinformation. A quantitative approach using a survey method was applied to 100 high school students who actively access political content on social media platforms. A validated questionnaire was used to measure literacy levels and misinformation recognition ability. Data were analyzed using logistic regression to estimate the contribution of each literacy variable to the accuracy of misinformation identification. The findings reveal that all three types of literacy have a positive and significant effect on students’ ability to recognize political misinformation. The combined model substantially improved classification accuracy, confirming the essential role of integrated digital literacy in strengthening students’ cognitive resilience against misleading information. The implications highlight the need to integrate contextual digital literacy learning into the curriculum through authentic political case studies, fact-checking exercises, and school policies that promote an informed and responsible digital culture.

Although previous research has offered important insights into the consequences of mis- and disinformation and the effectiveness of corrective information, we know markedly less about how different types of corrective information – news media literacy interventions and fact-checkers – can be combined to counter different forms of misinformation. Against this backdrop, this paper reports on experiments in the US and the Netherlands (N = 1,091) that exposed people to evidence-based or fact-free anti-immigration misinformation, fact-checkers and/or a media literacy intervention. The main findings indicate that evidence-based misinformation is seen as more accurate than fact-free misinformation, and the combination of news media literacy interventions and factcheckers is most effective in lowering issue agreement and perceived accuracy of misinformation across countries. These findings have important implications for journalism practice and policy makers that aim to combat mis- and disinformation.

This research explores the creation of truth in digital journalism through the dissemination of accurate information and combating media misinformation. The study employed a qualitative method to gather insights on developing comprehensive frameworks for assessing information credibility, challenges faced by journalists, and collaborative models for promoting media literacy. Key findings indicate a strong consensus on the necessity of frameworks that integrate technological tools and human cognitive factors to assess credibility. Journalists face significant barriers, including cognitive overload, algorithmic obfuscation, and source ambiguity. Collaborative models involving journalists, educators, and technology platforms are essential for promoting media literacy and reducing misinformation. The research highlights the importance of evaluating media literacy initiatives through pre- and postintervention assessments, knowledge-based tests, behavioral measures, surveys, and longitudinal studies. By addressing these areas, digital journalism can enhance public understanding and decrease susceptibility to misinformation. The study provides insights into strategies for combating misinformation, including advanced verification techniques, cognitive bias mitigation, and interdisciplinary collaboration. These findings have implications for journalists, educators, technology platforms, and policymakers seeking to promote media literacy and combat misinformation in digital journalism.

In the contemporary digital landscape, social media platforms have emerged as prolific environments for the proliferation of misinformation and fake news. The swift and expansive dissemination of inaccurate information presents profound challenges to individuals, communities, and the integrity of democratic processes. Addressing this issue necessitates a robust enhancement of communicative strategies to effectively counteract the spread of false information on social media. This research underscores the critical role of effective communication in mitigating the impact of misinformation on these platforms. It examines a range of strategies and tools designed to enhance digital literacy and bolster the credibility of online information. Furthermore, the study delves into the obstacles encountered in the fight against misinformation, emphasizing the pivotal importance of coordinated communicative efforts. The research culminates in practical insights and recommendations aimed at strengthening these efforts and fostering critical thinking among social media users.

Amid growing concern about information quality and credibility in digital media environments, researchers and educators still lack a concise, comprehensive yet psychometrically sound instrument for tracking the various competencies that help people navigate this landscape. This article develops the Digital Media and Information Literacy Scale (DMILS)—a robust and multidimensional measure that distinguishes domain (digital vs information/news), competency type (knowledge vs skill), and is measured through both subjective and objective items. Through two empirical studies with three nationally matched samples in the United States and Singapore (N = 1498), we developed an 18-item self-report battery and 16-item objective knowledge questions, showing strong structural, convergent, and predictive validity, along with a short form (eight self-report and eight objective items). By offering a parsimonious yet multidimensional yardstick, DMILS enables rigorous evaluation of media literacy interventions and supplies a common metric for cross-national research, critical for building an information ecosystem resilient to mis- and disinformation.

Digital media, deeply embedded in the daily lives of young Brazilians, plays a crucial role in shaping identities, defining social roles, and fostering new forms of sociability. These platforms can positively contribute to the personal and social development of young people by encouraging interaction and the exchange of experiences. However, this same dynamic also creates an environment conducive to the proliferation of phenomena such as cyberbullying, a form of intimidation and psychological violence that occurs in virtual settings. In light of this scenario, this article investigates responses to cyberbullying, particularly among children and adolescents, who are especially vulnerable to such practices. It advances a discussion that integrates digital literacy with the application of current legislation on the topic as a potential approach to enhancing awareness and strengthening young people’s capacity to act when facing abusive situations in the digital environment.

The growth of digital technologies has made information and communication facilities more accessible, making media literacy a major source of digital engagement and empowerment. Nevertheless, even with the similar accessibility and technical skills, there are still significant gender differences in the online interaction especially in the discussion of the public and politics. This paper explores the connection between media literacy, digital confidence and online participation through a gendered perspective, discussing why participants with the same level of media literacy skills have varied levels of participation with particular attention to the role of online harassment, self-efficacy and social norms. It used a mixed-methods approach, which involves quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews to obtain both quantifiable trends and experiences. The results indicate that men and women show the same level of media literacy and misinformation detection, but women report lower levels of digital confidence and are less involved in visible online behaviors. Online harassment, and its threat, serves as a significant obstacle to engagement, resulting in self-censorship and less visibility. These trends are also supported by social norms that do not encourage women to express themselves assertively. Notably, non-participation tends to be a strategic reaction to the risk perceived, but not necessarily lack of capability. The research finds that digital participation is not only a skill-based process but also safety, confidence, and structural conditions. It suggests gender sensitivity in media literacy programs, increased online safety measures, and the encouragement of inclusive online spaces that allow all users to participate meaningfully.

The article examines the integration of critical media literacy and digital safety into English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teaching, especially as digital environments grow and information-related risks rise. The aim of the studyis to analyze and systematize existing approaches to combining media literacy, safety, and language learning, as well as to outline generalized principles and practical dimensions of safety-oriented instruction.The study uses a mix of theoretical and empirical methods. The theoretical part focuses on analyzing, comparing, and generalizing recent research on critical media literacy, digital safety, and EFL pedagogy. The empirical component relies on structured pedagogical reflection from the authors’professional experience with educational initiatives in Jean Monnet projects –EUSELENA and EUSPACE at Sumy National Agrarian University, Ukraine, which involved combining media literacy and safety-related content with EFL teaching and creating related materials and tasks.Results.Based on the analysis, the study outlines a set of generalized principles for media literacy and safety-focused instructionin the EFL classroom, including integration, explicit safety, scaffolded criticality, authenticity, action-oriented learning, and reflection. These principles are further considered through three interrelated practical dimensions: critical media evaluation, digital safety andwell-being, and communicative competence with elements of digital citizenship. The article also outlines practical teaching activities, such as working with authentic media materials, analyzing online content, and engaging students in reflective and production-focused tasks.The conclusionshighlight that critical media literacy and safety issues can be meaningfully integrated into EFL teaching when seen as interconnected components of the learning process. The study contributes to a more structured understandingof how these elements can be addressed in language education and can inform curriculum development and teaching approaches in modern, digitally mediated settings.

This research examines the potential integration of digital literacy (DL) and artificial intelligence (AI) in the classroom, emphasizing how these tools might enhance learning results and prevent cyberbullying. Digital literacy—which encompasses technological proficiency, critical thinking, ethical awareness, and appropriate online conduct—has become more important for equitable socioeconomic development in India, especially in the post-pandemic age. National and state-led initiatives like Digital India, PMGDISHA, and Kerala's Akshaya project demonstrate efforts to bridge the urban–rural digital divide, even if barriers still persist due to limited access, especially for underprivileged communities. When applied appropriately, artificial intelligence has the potential to create transformative educational opportunities through administrative automation, adaptive learning platforms, and intelligent tutoring—all of which are consistent with Sustainable Development Goal 4 and India's National Education Policy (NEP) 2020. AI might benefit teachers by removing tedious tasks, increasing accessibility for a range of students, and customizing instruction. However, to address ethical and infrastructural challenges, including algorithmic bias, data privacy, unequal access, and an over-reliance on technology, robust regulatory frameworks, teacher preparation, and inclusive infrastructure development are needed. Teenagers' wellbeing is still frequently at risk from cyberbullying due to the anonymity and reach of digital platforms. It is linked to severe mental and physical health issues, including as depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and social isolation. Victims, perpetrators, and "bully-victims" all experience overlapping and worsening harms. By empowering students to recognize, reject, and report dangerous behaviors, digital literacy acts as a preventive tool. This encourages moral conduct and empathy on the internet. However, DL is not enough on its own; AIpowered moderation that makes use of machine learning and natural language processing can identify harmful content. Identifying complicated language, comprehending context and meaning, and preventing undetected misuse or false positives are some of the difficulties. In order to address cultural, psychological, and environmental issues, the article promotes a multidisciplinary approach to AI design for online safety by fusing technological know-how with social scientific perspectives. Training objective: Context-aware AI systems require high-quality, diversified annotated datasets. Among the policy recommendations are ensuring inclusive design for India's diverse population, integrating AI into middle school curricula, expanding public-private partnerships for sustainable implementation, and developing a National AI-in-Education Framework that prioritizes ethical governance, infrastructure development, and AI literacy. By successfully integrating digital literacy and artificial intelligence into its educational system, India can provide safe, hospitable, and personalized learning environments and prepare its citizens to participate fully in the global digital economy. This partnership has the potential to reduce cyberbullying, reduce educational inequalities, and create a new generation of informed, resilient, and ethical online citizens.

This study reveals the impact of media and information literacy (MIL) on acquiring critical thinking skills by the students of the Educational faculty. The study’s sample comprised (134) students, and its tool was a questionnaire comprising (20) items containing various media contents published on several social networking sites: Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. The findings show that students had an acceptable degree of critical thinking skill to understand and criticize media contents by (81 %). The study also stated that the most difficult media messages to interpret were those that include misleading content due to spelling errors or because of confusion between wit and abuse by (80 %), and the easiest to distinguish were those that include explicit words or expressions by (99.5 %). Considering the results, the researcher recommended conducting more scientific research on media and information literacy and its educational applications.

This study explores the influence of digital media literacy (DML) and political ideology on the perceived credibility of fact-checking messages. A 2
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2 factorial online experiment was conducted in South Korea and the U.S. to examine the effects of factchecking source (AI vs. human), DML (high vs. low), and political ideology (conservative vs. liberal). While AI-sourced fact-checking messages exhibited a stronger influence among individuals with high DML, human-sourced messages demonstrated greater efficacy among those with low DML. Contrary to expectations, politically liberal individuals with high DML assigned lower credibility ratings to news articles when the fact-checking source was AI, compared to human experts. Furthermore, the interaction between fact-checking source and DML was mediated by source likeability. These findings contribute to our understanding of how individual differences influence responses to fact-checked content and inform targeted fact-checking strategies.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has described the disinformation4 swirling amidst the COVID-19 pandemic as a “massive infodemic” – a major driver of the pandemic itself. Disinformation long predates5 COVID-19. The fabrications that contaminate public health information today rely on the same dissemination tools traditionally used to distribute disinformation. What’s novel are the themes and their very direct impacts. COVID-19 disinformation creates confusion about medical science with an immediate impact on every person on the planet, and upon whole societies. It is more toxic and more deadly than disinformation about other subjects. That is why this article coins the term disinfodemic. This text facilitates the understanding of this new menace, and of the many types of responses that are unfolding internationally. To do this, it unpacks four dominant formats of COVID-19 disinformation and presents a typology that groups the range of responses to the problem into ten classes. The findings presented herein are the result of desk research carried out by the authors, with inputs provided by research collaborators.6 The dataset on which the findings are based consists of a sample of over 200 articles, policy briefs, and research reports. This dataset was identified by the researchers through systematic searches in public databases curated by the Poynter Institute’s International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN), Index on Censorship, the International Press Institute (IPI), and First Draft News, along with the websites of news media, national governments, intergovernmental organizations, healthcare professionals, NGOs, think tanks, and academic publications.

This paper aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the disinformation in Italy during lockdown period, presenting the broader and detailed context surrounding the spread of misleading and false information in Italy. It emphasizes the urgent need to ensure adequate media literacy among young people during the lockdown period, a time when access to accurate information was fundamentally important. Additionally, it highlights the essential role of fact-checking and media literacy in counteracting the negative impact that fake news can have on society and democracy. It will address the consequences of spreading misleading information, illustrating how it can shape public opinion and erode trust in institutions and media outlets. Concrete examples of situations in which media literacy could have prevented harmful consequences will be provided, and the unique challenges Italy faces in addressing the spread of false information will be discussed. Key stakeholders involved in the fight against fake news in Italy and the significant initiatives taken to counter this harmful phenomenon will also be presented. Although concise, seeks to offer a complete and thorough view of the problem of fake news in Italy and the importance of adopting effective countermeasures through media literacy and fact-checking to ensure accurate information and a society grounded in truth. It is crucial to understand that fake news poses a growing threat to the social, political, and economic fabric of society. In the digital information era, the global spread of misleading information has intensified, generating confusion and uncertainty among individuals. Italy is not immune to this alarming trend. Therefore, it is essential to implement concrete measures to tackle this challenge and protect society from false and damaging news that can harm collective well-being.

This is the second part of the author’s study from the Michigan State University, devoted to the problems of identification and description of the disinformation crisis in the media and social media. The modern media field is increasingly filled with false information. The term “fake news” today includes a wide range of manipulative technologies: “computational propaganda”, “puppet networks”, “troll armies”, anonymous source, alternative fact, gossip, deceit, rumors, false context, etc. Problems are exacerbated at a high pace. The development of technological processes and the shift in global communication discourse to social networks and the Internet. The purpose of the article is to study the history and evolution of the disinformation crisis, which is a serious threat to open societies around the world. The author proposes to activate critical thinking among young people, to teach the audience to intellectually recognize and process fake news, to understand the need for a critical and independent analysis of incoming news and background information. The author also believes that media literacy helps to understand the role of the media in society, as well as the acquisition of important research and expression skills needed by the audience. Media literacy skills also include the ability to access media, analyze content, evaluate messages, and create media for communication and expression. Learning how to verify facts is an important component of media literacy training, a way to protect against manipulation and fake news.

This research delves into strategies for detecting and debunking disinformation, placing signifi cant emphasis on fortifying information literacy within university libraries. It explores the surge of disinformation in the digital era, its societal impacts, and the imperative of equipping individuals with adeptness to navigate today’s information landscape. The paper lists existing methodologies and tools for identifying disinformation, explores debunking strategies, and underscores the pivotal role of university libraries in fostering information literacy. It also pinpoints challenges and proposes future research directions and practical interventions in this domain.

Thedigitalagehasbroughtaboutunprecedentedchallengesandopportunitiesinjournalismeducation,particularlyintherealmofinformationdisorders.Thispaperexploresthephenomenonofinformationdisorders,encompassingmisinformation,disinformation,andmalinformation,andtheirimpactonjournalismeducationandpractice.Thepaperthroughliteraturereview,analysestheneedforaddressingtheseissuesbyincorporatingcriticalthinking,fact-checking,andmedialiteracyskills.Ithighlightstheimportanceofcounteractingthespreadoffalseinformationinadigitallandscapewheresuchcontentcaneasilyproliferate.Inaddition,itdiscussestheroleofethicaljournalismincombatinginformationdisordersandthenecessityofpreparingmediaindustryplayerstoupholdjournalisticintegrity.Byanalyzingcurrenteducationalpracticesandproposingenhancements,thispaperaimstoequipfuturejournalistswiththetoolsandknowledgerequiredtoeffectivelyaddressinformationdisorders,thuspreservingthecredibilityandreliabilityofjournalisminanincreasinglycomplexmediaenvironment.

In the Internet age, social media networks (SMNs), such as Facebook (FB), Instagram (IG), and Twitter (TW), have gained popularity and become an essential part of human life. SMNs provide ease of connection to family, friends, and communities; however, they increase the chances social media network users (SMN users) will disclose private information (PI), causing critical harm to SMN users’ information privacy (IP). Furthermore, SMN users are exposed to significant amounts of disinformation, misinformation, or fake news, which they share without realizing the information is untrustworthy.

This review is devoted to a comprehensive analysis of modern forms of information warfare in the context of digitalization and global interconnectedness. The work considers fundamental theoretical foundations—cognitive distortions, mass communication models, network theories and concepts of cultural code. The key tools of information influence are described in detail, including disinformation, the use of botnets, deepfakes, memetic strategies and manipulations in the media space. Particular attention is paid to methods of identifying and neutralizing information threats using artificial intelligence and digital signal processing, including partial digital convolutions, Fourier–Galois transforms, residue number systems and calculations in finite algebraic structures. The ethical and legal aspects of countering information attacks are analyzed, and geopolitical examples are given, demonstrating the peculiarities of applying various strategies. The review is based on a systematic analysis of 592 publications selected from the international databases Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar, covering research from fundamental works to modern publications of recent years (2015–2025). It is also based on regulatory legal acts, which ensures a high degree of relevance and representativeness. The results of the review can be used in the development of technologies for monitoring, detecting and filtering information attacks, as well as in the formation of national cybersecurity strategies.

This article explores the crucial role of media education and media literacy as effective tools in combating disinformation. In the context of the growing influence of digital media and the increasing spread of fake news, propaganda, and manipulative content, the authors examine the level of awareness among young people regarding key media-related concepts such as media literacy, fake news, propaganda, and disinformation. A sociological survey was conducted among students from two Ukrainian higher education institutions—Ivan Franko National University of Lviv and Lviv Polytechnic National University—involving 277 respondents. The research aimed to evaluate the depth of understanding and preparedness of youth to critically assess media content and recognize signs of manipulative information. The findings indicate a clear trend: media awareness and critical thinking skills improve progressively from secondary school students to university students. This article emphasizes the importance of integrating media literacy into formal education systems as a long-term strategy to build a more informed and resilient society. The authors highlight the need for systematic educational initiatives and practical training in media literacy to empower young audiences in navigating the complex media environment and resisting the impact of disinformation.

The rapid evolution of today’s technology landscape, driven by algorithm-driven systems (ADS), profoundly impacts everyday life and major societal functions. ADS, often perceived as mysterious or magical, are sophisticated computational methods that enable automated decision-making in various domains such as finance, employment, and social media content delivery. Despite their pervasive influence, understanding of these systems remains limited among the general public, posing risks to informed citizenship and democratic participation. This paper addresses the critical need for Algorithmic Literacy, a concept that extends beyond existing frameworks of media and digital literacy to encompass a basic proficiency in understanding how ADS function and influence personal and societal outcomes. Our research identifies a significant gap in Algorithmic Literacy among social media users, exacerbated by the increasing complexity and opacity of AI technologies. We propose a preliminary definition of Algorithmic Literacy and argue for its necessity in contemporary society. The paper outlines initial measures for fostering Algorithmic Literacy and sets a future research agenda to support these efforts. Our goal is to initiate a critical discourse on Algorithmic Literacy, calling on citizens, educators, policymakers, media professionals, and technologists to prioritize this issue to ensure informed and active participation in an increasingly algorithm-driven world.